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The detail of a portrait by Michael Dahl

James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos PC (6 January 1673 – 9 August 1744) was the first of fourteen children by Sir James Brydges, 3rd Baronet of Wilton Castle, Sheriff of Herefordshire, 8th Lord Chandos; and Elizabeth Barnard. Three days after his father’s death on 16 October 1714, he was created Viscount Wilton and Earl of Carnarvon; he became Duke of Chandos in 1719. He was a Member of Parliament for Hereford from 1698 to 1714.

Marriages and children

First marriage

On 2 February 1695, Brydges married Mary Lake, daughter of Sir Thomas Lake, of Cannons and Rebecca Langham. They had two children who survived childhood. She died on 15 September 1712.

1. John Brydges, Marquess of Carnarvon (15 January 1703 – 8 April 1727)
2. Henry Brydges, 2nd Duke of Chandos (1 February 1708 – 28 November 1771)

Second marriage

After Mary’s death, he married Cassandra Willoughby on 4 August 1713. She was the daughter of Francis Willoughby and Emma Barnard. They had no children. She died 18 July 1735.

Third marriage

On 18 April 1736, the Duke married Lydia Catherine Van Hatten, the daughter of John Van Hatten and Lydia Davall. They had no children.

Career

During the War of the Spanish Succession, Brydges was paymaster-general of the forces abroad, and in this capacity he amassed great wealth. In 1719 he was created Marquess of Carnarvon and Duke of Chandos.

The Duke is chiefly remembered on account of his connections with Georg Frideric Handel, for whom he acted as a major patron, and with Alexander Pope, seen as having slandered Chandos in one of his poems.

Brydges built a magnificent house “at vast expense” at Cannons, an older house near Edgware in Middlesex. There Brydges ran through several architects prominent in the English Baroque. He began in 1713 with William Talman, whom he dismissed in favour of John James in 1714; James had partly executed his designs before James Gibbs succeeded him in 1715. Howard Colvin (ref) concludes that the south and east elevations, as well as the chapel, were the designs of Gibbs. Brydges dismissed Gibbs in 1719, and completed the house under the supervision of John Price and, in 1723–25, Edward Shepherd. Cannons was demolished in 1747. On its site, now incorporated in Greater London, is Canons Park.

Brydges is said to have contemplated the construction of a private road across his own lands between this place and his never completed house in Cavendish Square, London, probably also designed by Gibbs.

Chandos, who was Lord Lieutenant of the counties of Hereford and Radnor, and Chancellor of the University of St Andrews (where he established the Chandos Chair of Medicine and Anatomy in 1721). He also became involved in the efforts to create a home for foundlings in London that would alleviate the problem of child abandonment in the capital. The charity, called the Foundling Hospital, received its royal charter in 1739, on which the Duke is listed as a governor.

Handel and Pope

The young composer Georg Frideric Handel was employed by Chandos for over two years, 1717–18, and lived at Cannons, where he composed his oratorio Esther and his pastoral Acis and Galatea. Handel composed the Chandos Anthems for his patron while he was still Lord Chandos; they were first performed at the parish church of St Lawrence, Whitchurch, with the composer playing the organ of 1716 which has survived there to the present day.

Alexander Pope, who in his Moral Essays (Epistle to the Earl of Burlington) was alleged to have described Cannons under the guise of Timon’s Villa, referred to the Duke in the line, “Thus gracious Chandos is belov’d at sight”; but Jonathan Swift, less complimentary, called him a great complier with every court. The poet was caricatured by Hogarth for his supposed servility to Chandos. Pope published a denial of his alleged satire of the Duke’s estate, in which he said that the estate of the poem “differs in every particular from” Chandos’s. According to Pope biographer Maynard Mack, Chandos thereafter assured Pope by letter that he believed him, i.e. that the Epistle to Burlington was not intended as a satire of his estate. The malice, indeed, was on the part not of Pope, but of the insinuators and slanderers, the hack writers whom Pope had ridiculed as dunces in his Dunciad; Mack calls the affair a “falsehood of considerable damage to character”.

After his death

He was succeeded by his son, Henry Brydges, 2nd Duke of Chandos, who found the estate so encumbered by debt that a demolition sale of Cannons was held in 1747, which dispersed furnishings and structural elements, with the result that elements of Cannons survive in several English country houses, notably Lord Foley’s house at Great Witley, and its chapel (completed in 1735—ceiling paintings by Bellucci and stained glass after designs by Francesco Sleter). The pulpit and other fittings from Chandos’s chapel were reinstalled in the parish church at Fawley, Buckinghamshire, by John Freeman of Fawley Court.

Notes

1. ^ Colvin, p. 403, quoting Soane MSS
2. ^ Price published elevations of the house with his own name as architect, “Built Anno 1720″ (Colvin, sub. Price)
3. ^ Two houses built by Chandos’s surveyor Edward Shepherd, eventually occupied the site (Colvin).
4. ^ Nichols and Wray, on pp. 345–353, list all governors named in the charter.

References

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
• Howard Colvin, 1995 (3rd ed.). A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects, 1600-1840 (Yale University Press)
• R.H. Nichols and F.A. Wray, The History of the Foundling Hospital (London: Oxford University Press, 1935)
• Johnson, Joan. Excellent Cassandra: The Life and Times of the Duchess of Chandos. Alan Sutton Publishing Limited, Gloucester, England 1981.

External links

• The Rise and Fall of Henry James Bridges, First Duke of Chandos, for whom Handel composed the Chandos Anthems, an excellent illustrated article
• Six Chandos Anthems, program notes to a 2-CD recording.
• The Dukes of Chandos

fish crystals

Nonary is a base-9 numeral system, typically using the digits 0-8, but not the digit 9.

The first few numbers in nonary and decimal are:

The multiplication table in nonary is:

Nonary notation can be used as a concise representation of ternary data. This is similar to using quaternary notation for binary data, though the digit set is closer in size to octal.

Except for three, no primes in nonary end in 0, 3 or 6, since any nonary number ending in 0, 3 or 6 is divisible by three.

A nonary number is divisible by two, four or eight, if the sum of its digits are also divisible by two, four or eight respectively.

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The Eagle Has Landed
1976 UK second edition paperback
Author	Jack Higgins
Country	United Kingdom
Language	English
Genre(s)	War, Thriller Novel
Publisher	HarperCollins
Publication date	8 September 1975
Media type	Print (Hardback and Paperback)
Pages	352 pp (hardcover edition)) 356 pp (paperback edition)
ISBN	ISBN 0-00-221208-0 (hardcover edition) ISBN 0-671-01934-1 (paperback edition)

The Eagle Has Landed is a book by Jack Higgins set during World War II . It first published in 1975. It was made into a film of the same name in 1976 starring Michael Caine. The plot has some similarities with that of Went the Day Well?, a film made during World War Two itself.

The book is still in print, being reissued in New York by Berkley Books in 2000 with ISBN 0-425-17718-1

Plot summary

The book makes use of the false document technique, and opens with Higgins making the claim that he discovered the grave of thirteen German paratroopers in an English graveyard. What follows was inspired by the real life rescue of Hitler’s ally Benito Mussolini by Otto Skorzeny, a similar idea is considered by Hitler, with the strong support of Himmler. Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, head of the Abwehr (German military intelligence), is ordered to make a feasibility study of the seemingly impossible task of capturing Prime Minister Winston Churchill and returning him to the Reich.

Canaris considers the idea a joke, but realizes that although Hitler will soon forget the matter, Himmler will not. Fearing Himmler may try to discredit him, Canaris orders one of his officers, Oberst Radl to undertake the study, despite feeling that it is all just a waste of time.

An Unteroffizier on Radl’s staff finds that one of their spies, code named Starling, has provided a tantalizing piece of intelligence. “At any other time, in any other place, this information would be useless”, Radl said. “And then synchronicity rears its ugly head.” Winston Churchill is scheduled to spend a weekend at a country house near the village of Studley Constable, where Joanna Grey, a South African woman and German spy, lives. Radl comes up with a scheme that he believes could work but Canaris orders him to abandon it.

Himmler learns of the scheme and summons Radl, ordering him to proceed, but without notifying Canaris. Radl dispatches Liam Devlin, a member of the IRA to contact Mrs. Grey, who hates the English due to her Boer heritage and experiences.

Radl recruits a team of commandos to carry out the operation, led by a German Fallschirmjäger officer, Oberst Kurt Steiner. While returning from the Eastern Front, Steiner intervened when SS soldiers rounded up Jews at a railway station in Poland, and allowed a teenage girl to escape on a passing freight train. For this, he was court-martialed, along with a platoon of his men. Rather than face a firing squad, the men were allowed to transfer to a punishment unit in the Channel Islands, where they made suicidal attacks with manned torpedoes against British channel convoys.

Radl travels to Guernsey and recruits Steiner and his surviving men. The safety of Kurt Steiner’s father, General Steiner, detained by the Gestapo, serves as an additional incentive for the Oberst. The team will fly into the UK in a captured C-47 with Allied markings. The commandos outfit themselves as Free Polish troops, as few of them speak English; the plan is to infiltrate Studley Constable, complete their mission, rendezvous with an E-boat at the nearby coast and make their escape.

The plan is ultimately foiled when a German paratrooper rescues two local children from a water wheel. He is killed in the process and his German uniform (worn under the Polish uniforms, by Himmler’s order, as protection against being executed as spies) is revealed to the villagers. The locals are rounded up, but the sister of Father Vereker, a local priest, escapes and alerts a locally stationed United States Army unit. Colonel Robert Shafto, an inexperienced but headstrong officer, rallies his forces to retake the hostages, but is then killed while attempting to apprehend Mrs. Grey personally. The assault on the church fails. Major Kane organizes a second, successful attack.

Steiner, his second-in-command Ritter Neumann, and Devlin manage to escape with the aid of a local girl, Molly Prior, who had become romantically involved with the Irishman. Instead of taking his chance to escape, Steiner opts to make one last attempt at Churchill. He succeeds in reaching Churchill, but hesitates and is shot and is supposedly killed. (However, Steiner reappears alive in The Eagle Has Flown, a sequel.) Radl has a heart attack, implied to be fatal, although at about the same time, Himmler, upon discovering that the mission has failed, orders Radl’s arrest for treason against the state.

As in many novels of Higgins, this story is surrounded by a ‘frame story’ with a prologue and epilogue. The author, whilst doing historical research in Norfolk, supposedly meets various surviving characters. Some paperback editions have more historical backstory than others, including a meeting with a older Liam Devlin in a Belfast hotel. The final revelation comes from an aged and terminally ill Father Vereker: “Churchill” had been an impersonator and even if the mission had succeeded, it would not have mattered.

Sequel

• After the success of The Eagle Has Landed, Higgins wrote a quasi-sequel called The Eagle Has Flown.

Characters

• The Liam Devlin character seems to be based on the real-life Frank Ryan. Like Devlin in the book, Ryan was an IRA man who had fought on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War, was captured by the Franco forces and afterwards passed to the Germans. The real Ryan had not, however, participated in any German commando raid, and his deteriorating health (he died in 1944 in a Dresden hospital) would have made this impossible. Devlin is also featured in a later Jack Higgins book, older and supporting British authorities in stopping an attack on the Pope.

External links

• WW2DB: The Eagle Has Landed book review

left arm return sectional slipcover

Oscar Chichoni (born July 14, 1957) is a renowned Argentine illustrator of comic books and science fiction magazines and books.

Biography

Chichoni was born in a desolate hamlet in Corral de Bustos, province of Córdoba, and is self-taught in art. He published his first comic books pictures at the age of 17 for the Argentine publisher Record, and soon his work was paralleled to that of some famous authors like Alberto Breccia, Juan Zanotto and Juan Giménez.

Following this period as a comic book artist, Chichoni devoted himself to painting. He spent two times studying under the painter Álvaro Izurieta, and began to draw book covers for several publishers, becoming soon renowned in all the world for his powerful and well-detailed anatomies.

In the second half of the 1980s he moved to Europe, collaborating and winning various awards. His main collaboration is for the Italian editor Arnoldo Mondadori’s science fiction series Urania and its spin-offs.

Since 1995, Chichoni has been working as free-lance, mainly as conceptual creator for movies. He collaborated on the graphic part of the videogames Starship Titanic by Douglas Adams and Broken Sword 3. He won an Academy Award as art director for the movie Restoration by Michael Hoffman. In 2000 he published Mekanika, his first collection of artworks.

Chichoni’s best-known style combines mechanical intricacy and sensuality in a striking statement of Art Deco reborn. He is a man of many pencils, and is capable of countless other styles hard-edged, gothic, impressionist, almost anything that might fire the imagination.

Chichoni is currently living in London, where he works in team with the architect Isabel Molina.

Awards

• In Argentina, Premio Mas Alla as best illustrator.
• In Spain, Premio 1984 as best cover artist and for the best cover.
• In Italy, Caran d’Ache at the Lucca Comics.

Selected works

Covers

• Fierro (Argentina)
• Playboy (Argentine and Spanish edition)
• Totem (Spain)
• Minotauro (Argentina and Spain)
• Zona 84 (Spain)
• Urania (magazine) (Italy)
• Classici Urania (Italy)
• Altri Mondi (Italy)
• L’Eternauta (Italy)
• Metal Hurlant (France)
• USA Magazine (France)
• Heavy Metal (USA)

Movies

• Restoration (1995)
• Tell Tale

Video games

• Starship Titanic (1998)
• Broken Sword 3: the Sleeping Dragon (2003)
• Necrocide: The Dead Must Die (upcoming)

lot scrapbooking

Coordinates: 23°22?N 86°02?E? / ?23.36, 86.03 Ajodhya Hills (Bengali: : ??????? ???????? (??????? ??????), Hindi: ) is a hill station located in the Purulia district of the state West Bengal, India. It is located at an altitude of about 700m ASL. The nearby populated town area is Bagmundi.

Overview

It’s an popular place for Young mountaineers to learn the basic course in rock climbing. There are two routes available to reach Ajodhya Hills. One is via Jhalda and the other one is via Sirkabad. There is a Forest Rest House here. Gorgabunu (900 m), Mayuri etc. are of the some of the peaks of Ajodhya hills range.

Mythology

According to legend of this area, Rama and his wife Sita had arrived here and resided. One day, Sita was feeling thirsty and Rama stabbed an arrow in the earth’s crust and within that water spurt out and Sita satisfied her thirst. The place Sita-kunda is named after this.

Development

Dr B.C. Roy, the second Chief Minister of West Bengal had dreamt of setting up a hilltown on the base of this hill. That dream could never be converted into reality.

In late 1990s, Government of West Bengal has started a Hydro-Electricity Project in the Area.

References

External links

• Ajodhya Photographs at TrekEarth

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Adelbert von Chamisso

Adelbert von Chamisso (January 30, 1781 – August 21, 1838), was a German poet and botanist.

He was born Louis Charles Adélaïde de Chamissot at the château of Boncourt in Champagne, France, the ancestral seat of his family. Driven out by the French Revolution, his parents settled in Berlin, where in 1796 young Chamisso obtained the post of page-in-waiting to the queen, and in 1798 entered a Prussian infantry regiment as ensign.

His family were shortly afterwards permitted to return to France; he remained in Germany and continued his military career. He had little education, but sought distraction from the dull routine of the Prussian military service in assiduous study. In collaboration with Varnhagen von Ense, he founded (1803) the Berliner Musenalmanach, in which his first verses appeared. The enterprise was a failure, and, interrupted by the war, it came to an end in 1806. It brought him, however, to the notice of many of the literary celebrities of the day and established his reputation as a rising poet.

He had become lieutenant in 1801, and in 1805 accompanied his regiment to Hameln, where he shared in the humiliation of its treasonable capitulation in the following year. Placed on parole, he went to France, but both his parents were dead; returning to Berlin in the autumn of 1807, he obtained his release from the service early the following year. Homeless and without a profession, disillusioned and despondent, he lived in Berlin until 1810, when, through the services of an old friend of the family, he was offered a professorship at the lycée at Napoléonville in the Vendée.

He set out to take up the post, but drawn into the charmed circle of Madame de Staël, followed her in her exile to Coppet in Switzerland, where, devoting himself to botanical research, he remained nearly two years. In 1812 he returned to Berlin, where he continued his scientific studies. In the summer of the eventful year, 1813, he wrote the prose narrative Peter Schlemihl, the man who sold his shadow. This, the most famous of all his works, has been translated into most European languages (English by William Howitt). It was written partly to divert his own thoughts and partly to amuse the children of his friend Julius Eduard Hitzig.

In 1815, Chamisso was appointed botanist to the Russian ship Rurik, which Otto von Kotzebue (son of August von Kotzebue) commanded on a scientific voyage round the world. His diary of the expedition (Tagebuch, 1821) is a fascinating account of the expedition to the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. During this trip Chamisso described a number of new species found in what is now the San Francisco Bay Area. Several of these, including the California poppy, Eschscholzia californica, were named after his friend Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz, the Rurik’s entomologist. In return, Eschscholtz named a variety of plants, including the genus Camissonia, after Chamisso. On his return in 1818 he was made custodian of the botanical gardens in Berlin, and was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1820 he married.

Chamisso’s travels and scientific researches restrained for a while the full development of his poetical talent, and it was not until his forty-eighth year that he turned back to literature. In 1829, in collaboration with Gustav Schwab, and from 1832 in conjunction with Franz von Gaudy, he brought out the Deutscher Musenalmanach, in which his later poems were mainly published.

He died in Berlin at the age of 57.

Chamisso will be remembered for his work as a botanist; his most important work, done in conjunction with Diederich Franz Leonhard von Schlechtendal, was the description of many of the most important trees of Mexico in 1830-1831. Also, his Bemerkungen und Ansichten, published in an incomplete form in von Kotzebue’s Entdeckungsreise (Weimar, 1821) and more completely in Chamisso’s Gesammelte Werke (1836), and the botanical work, Übersicht der nutzbarsten und schädlichsten Gewächse in Norddeutschland (1829) are esteemed for their careful treatment of their subjects.

As a poet Chamisso’s reputation stands high, Frauenliebe und -leben (1830) (a cycle of lyrical poems which was set to music by Robert Schumann, by Carl Loewe, and by Franz Paul Lachner) being particularly famous. Also noteworthy are Schloss Boncourt and Salas y Gomez. In estimating his success as a writer, it should be remembered that he was cut off from his native language. He often deals with gloomy or repulsive subjects; and even in his lighter and gayer productions there is an undertone of sadness or of satire. In the lyrical expression of the domestic emotions he displays a fine felicity, and he knew how to treat with true feeling a tale of love or vengeance. Die Löwenbraut may be taken as a sample of his weird and powerful simplicity; and Vergeltung is remarkable for a pitiless precision of treatment.

The first collected edition of Chamisso’s works was edited by J.E. Hitzig and published in six volumes in 1836. The standard author abbreviation Cham. is used to indicate this individual as the author when citing a botanical name.

See also

• List of plants of Caatinga vegetation of Brazil
• List of plants of Cerrado vegetation of Brazil

References

1. ^ Brummitt, R. K.; C. E. Powell (1992). Authors of Plant Names. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 1-84246-085-4. 

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

Hoodia Thin

Part of a series on Hindu philosophy

Schools Samkhya · Yoga · Nyaya · Vaisheshika · Purva Mimamsa · Vedanta (Advaita · Vishishtadvaita · Dvaita · Achintya Bheda Abheda)

Persons Ancient Gautama · Jaimini · Kanada · Kapila · Markandeya · Patañjali · Valmiki · Vyasa Medieval Adi Shankara · Chaitanya · Kabir · Madhusudana · Madhva · Namdeva  · Nimbarka  · Ramanuja · Tukaram · Tulsidas · Vallabha Modern Ramakrishna Paramahamsa · Aurobindo · Coomaraswamy · Gandhi · Narayana Guru · Prabhupada Radhakrishnan · Yogananda · Ramana Maharshi · Swami Ramdas · Dayananda Saraswati · Sivananda · Swaminarayan · Swami Vivekananda · A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada · Yogi-Scientist Tapanananda ·

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Vedanta (Devanagari: ???????, Ved?nta) is a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the self-realisation by which one understands the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman) and teaches the believer’s goal is to transcend the limitations of self-identity and realize one’s unity with Brahman. Vedanta which implies “the end of all knowledge” - by definition is not restricted or confined to one book and there is no sole source for Vedantic philosophy. Vedanta is based on immutable spiritual laws that are common to religions and spiritual traditions worldwide. Vedanta as the end of knowledge refers to a state of self-realisation, attainment, or cosmic consciousness. Historically and currently Vedanta is understood as a state of transcendence and not as a concept that can be grasped by the intellect alone.

The word Vedanta is a Sanskrit compound word which can be treated as:

• veda = “knowledge” + anta = “end, conclusion”: “the culmination of knowledge” or “appendix to the Veda”
• veda = “knowledge” + anta = “essence”, “core”, or “inside”: “the essence of the Vedas“.

Ved?nta is also called Uttara Mimamsa, or the ‘latter’ or ‘higher enquiry’, and is often paired with Purva Mimamsa, the ‘former enquiry’. P?rva Mimamsa, usually simply called Mimamsa, deals with explanations of the fire-sacrifices of the Vedic mantras (in the Samhita portion of the Vedas) and Brahmanas, while Vedanta explicates the esoteric teachings of the ?ra?yakas (the “forest scriptures”), and the Upanishads, composed from ca. the 9th century BC until modern times.

History

While the traditional Vedic Karma k?nda, or ritualistic components of religion, continued to be practiced through the Brahmins as meditative and propitiatory rites to guide society to self-knowledge, more jnana (gnosis)- or knowledge-centered understandings began to emerge. These are mystical streams of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than on rituals.

Etymologically, veda means “knowledge” and anta means “end”, so the literal meaning of the term “Ved?nta” is “the end of knowledge” or “the ultimate knowledge” or “matter appended to the Veda”. In earlier writings, Sanskrit ‘Ved?nta’ simply referred to the Upanishads, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedanta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, or shabda pramana, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or pratyakssa, and logical inference, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid).

Formalization

The systematization of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by Badarayana in the Vedanta Sutra (200 BC). Scholars know the Ved?nta-s?tra by a variety of names, including (1) Brahma-s?tra, (2) ??r?raka, (3) Vy?sa-s?tra, (4) B?dar?ya?a-s?tra, (5) Uttara-m?m??s? and (6) Ved?nta-dar?ana. The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries claiming to be faithful to the original. Consistent throughout Vedanta, however, is the exhortation that ritual be eschewed in favor of the individual’s quest for truth through meditation governed by a loving morality, secure in the knowledge that infinite bliss awaits the seeker. Nearly all existing sects of Hinduism are directly or indirectly influenced by the thought systems developed by Vedantic thinkers. Hinduism to a great extent owes its survival to the formation of the coherent and logically advanced systems of Vedanta.

Source texts

All forms of Vedanta are drawn primarily from the Upanishads, a set of philosophical and instructive Vedic scriptures, which deal mainly with forms of meditation. “The Upanishads are commentaries on the Vedas, their putative end and essence, and thus known as Ved?nta or “End of the Veda”. They are considered the fundamental essence of all the Vedas and although they form the backbone of Vedanta, portions of Vedantic thought are also derived from some of the earlier Aranyakas.

The primary philosophy captured in the Upanishads, that of one absolute reality termed as Brahman is the main principle of Vedanta. The sage Vyasa was one of the major proponents of this philosophy and author of the Brahma S?tras based on the Upanishads. The concept of Brahman – the Supreme Spirit or the eternal, self existent, immanent and transcendent Supreme and Ultimate Reality which is the divine ground of all Being - is central to most schools of Ved?nta. The concept of God or Ishvara is also there, and the Vedantic sub-schools differ mainly in how they identify God with Brahman.

The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretations. Over a period of time, several scholars have interpreted the writings in Upanishads and other scriptures like Brahma Sutras according to their own understanding and the need of their time. There are a total of six important interpretations of these source texts, out of which, three (Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita) are prominent, both in India and abroad. These Vedantic schools of thought were founded by Shri Adi Shankara, Shri Ramanuja and Shri Madhvacharya, respectively. It should be noted, however, that the Indian pre-Shankara Buddhist writer Bhavya in the Madhyamakahrdaya Karika describes the Vedanta philosophy as “Bhedabheda”. Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in India.

While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, the Bhagavad Gita has played a strong role in Vedantic thought, what with its representative syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic thought. Indeed, it is itself called an “upanishad” and thus, all major Vedantic teachers (like Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhvacharya) have taken it upon themselves to compose often extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the Gita. In such a manner, Vedantists both old and new have implicitly attested to the Gita’s importance to the development of Vedantic thought and practice.

Sub-schools of Vedanta

Advaita Vedanta

Adi Sankara - The great Advaita philosopher

Advaita Ved?nta was propounded by Adi Sankara and his grand-guru Gaudapada, who described Ajativada. According to this school of Ved?nta, Brahman is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole reality, it cannot be said to possess any attributes whatsoever. An illusionary power of Brahman called M?y? causes the world to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the cause of all suffering in the world and only upon true knowledge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the influence of M?y?, Brahman appears as God (Ishvara), separate from the world and from the individual. In reality, there is no difference between the individual soul j?v?tman (see Atman) and Brahman. Liberation lies in knowing the reality of this non-difference (i.e. a-dvaita, “non-duality”). Thus, the path to liberation is finally only through knowledge (jñ?na).

Vishishtadvaita

Vishishtadvaita was propounded by Ramanuja and says that the j?v?tman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman is asserted to have attributes, including the individual conscious souls and matter. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds Bhakti or devotion to God visualized as Vishnu to be the path to liberation. M?y? is seen as the creative power of God.

Dvaita

Dvaita was propounded by Madhvacharya. It is also referred to as tatvav?d? - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with Brahman completely, and in turn with Vishnu or his various incarnations like Krishna, Narasimha, Srinivasa etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishNava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishNavism. It regards Brahman, all individual souls (j?v?tmans) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates Bhakti as the route to sAttvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha) and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively. Liberation according to Dvaita, is the state of attaining maximum joy (or sorrow) which is awarded to individual souls at the end of their sadhana based on the souls’ inherent and natural disposition towards good (or evil). In that way, this is the only mainstream Vedantic philosophy that provides a realist solution to the so called problem of evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energising every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.

Dvait?dvaita

Dvait?dvaita was propounded by Nimb?rka, based upon an earlier school called Bhed?bheda, which was taught by Bh?skara. According to this school, the j?v?tman is at once the same as yet different from Brahman. - jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. In this school, God is visualized as Krishna.

Shuddhadvaita

Shuddhadvaita propounded by Vallabha. This system also encouraged Bhakti as the only means of liberation to go to Goloka (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word ‘go’, ‘cow’, also means ’star’). The world is said to be the sport (Leela) of Krishna, who is Sat-Chit-Ananda.

Achintya Bhed?bheda

Achintya Bhed?bheda propounded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Bengal, 1486-1534). This doctrine of inconceivable and simultaneous one-ness and difference this is actually an ancient system of knowledge and devotion to Supreme Personality of Godhead, Sri Krishna. However he has indicated that this sublime gift has been brought to mankind through the kind effort and dedication of an unbroken chain of teachers beginning with the Supreme Lord Himself. In the modern age of science and technology, the pure teachings were broadcast all over the world in the 19th century. Some institutions follow the path of Mahaprabhu, such as ISKCON, Gaudiya math, Sri radharaman achrayas, Srila Atul Krishna goswami ji maharaj, Sri Sribhuti Krishna Goswami Ji maharaj, Sri Pundrik Goswami Ji Maharaj etc.

While Adi Shankara propounded the Sm?rta denomination, all the other above-mentioned acharyas were strongly Vaishnavite in orientation. The Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Mimamsa (ie, purva-) have their epistemology in common.{{Fact}]

Purnadvaita or Integral Advaita

According to his followers, Sri Aurobindo, in his The Life Divine, synthesized all the exant schools of Vedanta and gave a comprehensive resolution integrating cues from the Western metaphysics and modern science. He is said to have restored the umbilical cord of the Vedantic exegesis with the Vedas.

Modern Vedanta

Main article: Hindu revivalism

The term “modern Vedanta” is sometimes used to describe the interpretation of Advaita Vedanta given by Swami Vivekananda of the Ramakrishna order of monks. He stressed that:

• Although God is the absolute reality, the world has a relative reality. It should therefore not be completely ignored.
• Conditions of abject poverty should be removed; only then will people be able to turn their minds toward God.
• All religions are striving in their way to reach the ultimate truth. Narrow sectarian bickering should therefore be abandoned, and religious tolerance should be practised — between different Hindu denominations, as well as Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, etc.

Vivekananda traveled to the Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago in 1893, and became an influential figure in synthesising Eastern and Western thought. He played a major role in the spread of Vedanta to Western nations. His travel to the West was criticised by some orthodox Hindus. His proponents claim that he made Vedanta living, by understanding how it could be applied to the modern world, and by investing it with his own spirit.For Vivekananda, Vedanta was not something dry or esoteric, but a living approach to the quest for self-knowledge.

In his interpretation of Advaita (as in Shankara’s), there is still a place for Bhakti (devotion). Monks of the Ramakrishna order suggest that it is easier to begin meditation on a personal God with form and qualities, rather than the formless Absolute. Saguna Brahman and Nirguna Brahman are viewed as obverse and reverse of the same coin.

List of teachers

Main article: List of teachers of Vedanta

There have been many teachers of Vedanta in India and other countries over the centuries. Hari Prasad Shastri, D. Krishna Ayyar, Ramana Maharshi, Narayana Guru , Shri Siddharameshwar Maharaj, Sri Ranjit Maharaj, Swami Rama Tirtha, Swami Vivekananda, Swami Sivananda , Swami Krishnananda, Swami Paramananda, Swami Chinmayananda, Swami Sri Lilashahji Maharaj, Shri Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Sri Aurobindo, Shri Swami Tapovan Maharaj, Sengalipuram Muthannaval, Mannargudi periyaval, Paruthiyur Krishna Sastri, Anantarama Dikshitar, Kanchi Mahaswamigal,Swami Ranganathananda were great Vedanta scholars. Parthasarathy Swami Parthasarathy,Sri Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Baba Ramdev, Nithyananda Swamigal, Muralidara swamigal, Swami Krsnapriyananda Saraswati, are distinguished, traditional teacher of Vedanta of the present day.

Influence in the West

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The influential philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel refers to Indian thought reminiscent of Advaita-Vedanta in his introduction to his The Phenomenology of Spirit and in his Science of Logic. Arthur Schopenhauer was influenced by the Vedas and Upanishads; in his own words: “If the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries, if then the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him.” (The World as Will and Representation) Among western figures who have been influenced by or have commented on Vedanta are Friedrich Nietzsche, Max Müller, Voltaire, J.D. Salinger,Aldous Huxley, T. S. Eliot, J.B. Priestley, Christopher Isherwood, Romain Rolland, Alan Watts, Eugene Wigner, Arnold Toynbee, Joseph Campbell, Hermann Hesse, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Will Durant, Nikola Tesla, Erwin Schrödinger and John Dobson.

Notes

1. ^ Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary’s Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5. 
2. ^ Vedanta Sutra and the Vedanta by Dr. Subhash C. Sharma
3. ^ Ghanshyamdas Birla Alive in Krishna: Living Memories of the Vedic Quest (Patterns of World Spirituality) (New York: Paragon House, 1986) p. 37. ISBN 0-913-75765-9 According to Birla, Karma Kanda, as it was called, was then in the hands of the priests. This was part of the Vedas, but in the hands of the priests it had assumed an aspect entirely different from the one Vyasa (Krishna) had shown. Sacrificing animals and drinking the juice of the Soma creeper soon became very attractive to the priests and the real purpose of the yajnas, nishkama karma, was lost sight of. Along with the ascendancy of the priests there came into force the teachings of the Sankhyas which advocated Sanyasa. To rescue humanity from both these paths Krishna established the Bhagavata dharma.
4. ^ Goswami, S.D. (1976), Readings in Vedit Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself, , pp. 240 pages, ISBN 0912776889 
5. ^ Vedanta on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia
6. ^ Vedanta on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia
7. ^ Vedanta on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia
8. ^ Vedanta on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia
9. ^ Vedanta on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia
10. ^ Sachin N. Pradhan, India in the United States: Contribution of India and Indians in the United States of America, Bethesda, MD: SP Press International, Inc., 1996, p 12.
11. ^ Jackson, Carl T. (1994), Vedanta And The West, Indiana University Press 
12. ^ Schrödinger, Erwin (1944), What is Life? Mind and Matter, Cambridge University Press, pp. 194 pages, ISBN 0521427088 

See also

• Monistic idealism
• Svayam bhagavan

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Meditations on the Tarot: A Journey into Christian Hermeticism is a book published posthumuously and anonymously in 1985. It was originally written in French, and translated into English by Robert A. Powell of the Sophia Foundation.

The author is known, but because of his request to remain anonymous, the link to the author is made through a redirecting page. The Afterword states that “The author wished to remain anonymous in order to allow the work to speak for itself, to avoid the interposition of any kind of personal element between the work and the reader–reasons that we respect.”

The author is clearly a Roman Catholic, although the ideas expressed are often not commonly associated with Catholic dogma. Many of the ideas are strongly influenced by Jungian thought.

The body of the work is divided into 22 Chapters, called “Letters”, with a Foreword by the author and an Afterword by Hans Urs von Balthasar, a Swiss theologian nominated to be a Cardinal. Each chapter is centered around a card from the Major Arcana of the Tarot of Marseilles.

Each card is taken as an “arcanum,” which the author defines in part in Letter I: The Magician as “… that which it is necessary to ‘know’ in order to be fruitful in a given domain of spiritual life. … a ‘ferment’ or an ‘enzyme’ whose presence stimulates the spiritual and the psychic life of man.” He writes that they “are neither allegories nor secrets … authentic symbols … conceal and reveal their sense at one and the same time according to the depth of meditation.” The symbolism of the cards is taken as a springboard for discussing and describing various aspects of Christian spiritual life and growth.

Sources cited in the work are many; the most commone one is the Bible, followed by an array of saints, theologists, mystics, philosophers, occultists, and other writers, notably including Henri Bergson, Buddha, Goethe, Jung, Kant, Eliphas Lévi, Nietzsche, Fabre d’Olivet, Origen, Papus, Joséphin Péladan, Philip of Lyons, Plato, St. Albertus Magnus, St. Anthony the Great, St. Augustine, St. Bonaventura, St. Dionysius the Areopagite, St. Francis of Assisi, St. John of the Cross, St. Theresa of Ávila, St. Thomas Aquinas, Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin, Saint-Yves d’Alveydre, Dr. Rudolf Steiner, Fr. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Hermes Trismegistus, and Oswald Wirth (major entries taken in alphabetical order from the index).

References

1. ^ Anonymous (1985). Meditations on the Tarot: A Journey into Christian Hermeticism. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher / Putnam. ISBN 1-58542-161-8. 

• Meditations on the Tarot: A Journey into Christian Hermeticism ISBN 1-58542-161-8.

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This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (June 2007)

ACE Radio is an Australian radio company, owning several AM and FM stations in Victoria.

Its latest acquisition is 2AY Albury Wodonga, purchased from Macquarie Regional RadioWorks in 2005.

Owned and Operated Stations

AM network

• 1494 2AY Albury-Wodonga
• 981 3HA Western Victoria (based in Hamilton)
• 1332 3SH The Mallee (based in Swan Hill)
• 1242 3GV Gippsland and the Valley (based in Traralgon)
• 882 3YB The Coast (based in Warrnambool)
• 1134 3CS The Great South West (based in Colac)
• 1089 3WM The Wimmera (based in Horsham)

FM network

• 3TR FM - 99.5 Traralgon, 99.9 Bairnsdale (based in Traralgon)
• Mixx FM The South West - 92.7 Lorne, 95.9 Apollo Bay, 106.3 Colac, (based in Colac)
• Mixx FM Western Victoria - 88.9 Hamilton, (based in Hamilton)
• Mixx FM The Wimmera - 94.5 Nhill, 98.5 Ararat, 101.3 Horsham (based in Horsham)
• Mixx FM The Mallee - 98.7 Kerang, 107.7 Swan Hill (based in Swan Hill)
• Coast FM - 95.3 Warrnambool, 93.7 Portland (based in Warrnambool)

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The Great Stew Chase is a 15K Road Race held annually in early February. The race website claims that it is the 3rd oldest 15k in the USA. The post race food is Beef Stew, hence the race name.

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